Written by:
Joel Bacha
MATESOL / International Policy Studies candidate
Educational Development
Monterey Institute of International Studies
Teaching English in Japanese elementary schools for four years allowed
me to experiment with a number of music, game, and total physical response
(TPR) activities. I found that students were more apt to participate in
an activity if it incorporated playfulness and physical movement. The resulting
intrinsic motivation seemed to stimulate students' affectively and give
them the desire to learn. There was, however, skepticism among a few teachers
when using play such as music, games, and TPR in the classroom. I occasionally
experienced minor criticisms and heard comments such as, "How can
students learn when they are having fun?" or "Students should
sit in their seats and pay attention when learning." Although I have
found that such playful activities to stimulate students and promote learning,
I know there are others who feel such activities do not compliment language
acquisition. In this review I hope to examine research from the professional
community on the effectiveness of playfulness and affect in language learning.
According to Cook (2000), trends in cognitive linguistics tend to concentrate
on what is going on in the child's mind, following Chomsky; mainly focusing
on the existence of some internal program. Studies in this area are based
on the assumption that acquisition only involves the independent development
of grammatical and phonological competence in isolation, rather than interaction
with a child's physical, social, and personal development. As a result,
little attention has been paid to the role of the environment on a child's
language acquisition. Research has done little to answer the following
question: What does happen in a child's mind when they listen to a song
in another language, move to the rhythm of a foreign rhyme, or engage in
a game that requires them to speak a foreign tongue?
Intrinsic motivation
Music, games, and TPR activities constitute an activity-based approach
to language learning. General comments on the psychological effects of
an activity-based approach on children were made by Vale and Feunteun (1995).
They state that an activity-based approach has the potential to lower social
and emotional constraints and pressures that interfere with effective learning.
To answer how an activity-based approach lowers such learning barriers,
it might be best to begin by discussing motivation. Deci and Ryan (1985)
explain that when the educational environment provides challenges and rich
sources of stimulation which include, in my view music, games, TPR, etc.,
it sparks intrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation raises students' natural
curiosity and interest which promotes learning. A study conducted by Dornyei
(1990) also reveals that intrinsic motivation may promote long-term retention
of language. In fact, a number of researchers believe that those who learn
intrinsically gain superior understanding of the material being learned
(Crookes and Schmidt, 1991; Deci, 1995). An activity-based approach to
language learning seems to not only promote intrinsic motivation, but the
resulting intrinsic motivation appears to promote a better understanding
of the language in the long run.
Prior to the 1990's, much of the research examining the specific role of
music, games, and TPR activities in language learning was limited only
to the affective outcomes of such activities. There was still a problem
between how motivation influenced language acquisition. For example, Coleman
(1967) claimed that games encompass a wide range of skills and enable students
to see the consequences of their own actions. Allowing one to see the effects
of their own actions promotes intrinsic motivation, but how intrinsic motivation
benefits language learning was still not clear. A claim by Rosenbach (1988)
when discussing the benefits of using music in the classroom, simply acknowledges
that using music in the classroom promotes intrinsic motivation, but how
intrinsic motivation leads to language acquisition is not examined. Some
such as Santos (1988) suggest that songs help students develop linguistic
competences in pronunciation, intonation, vocabulary and comprehension.
But again, there is little literature tying together how intrinsic motivation
leads to such linguistic competences.
Emotion
To gain a better understanding of how intrinsic motivation promotes learning,
I will examine the physiological processes generated by emotion. In a paper
discussing emotion, Ratner (2000) refers to Vygotsky's view that emotions
are integrated into cognition and are formed by cultural processes. For
example, the social activity of music in the classroom, which promotes
intrinsic motivation, can also foster various positive emotional responses.
It is difficult to determine whether positive emotion promotes intrinsic
motivation or if intrinsic motivation sparks positive emotion. It might
be safe to say that positive emotion and intrinsic motivation are mutually
reinforcing.
Extensive research on the physiological relationship between emotion and
cognition has been conducted by Damasio (1994). According to Damasio, the
brain releases "chemical messages" which have a major impact
on the efficiency of the cognitive process. This concept is applied to
second language acquisition by Schumann (1990). Schumann explains that
a gland in the brain, called the amygdala, evaluates emotional stimuli
and relays "chemical messages" to other emotion centers of the
brain. Once these emotion centers are activated, they may influence what
is perceived and learned by an individual, contributing to second language
learning. Thus positive emotion, by triggering a chemical response in the
amygdala, creates a pathway for language acquisition.
Literature in the 1990's began describing how specific activities contribute
to neural stimulation and learning. Arnold (1999) suggests that movement
such as dancing or TPR, activates one's mental capacities and stimulates
their neural network. Relaying this to Vygotsky and Schumann, we might
say that social activity of movement fosters positive emotion which triggers
the amygdala and provides support for learning. A connection was also made
between music and positive emotion by Hansen (1999). Hansen explains that
rhythm and harmony from song activates different areas of the auditory,
visual, and motor cortex. He declares that this activation results in the
release of endorphins (possibly Damasio's "chemical messages")
which enhance pleasure, free emotional blocks, stimulate mental activity,
and lead to acquisition.
An additional study conducted by Medina (1993), looks at the effectiveness
of music on vocabulary acquisition. She does not discuss the role of emotion
or physiological process described by Schumann, however, she does conclude
that music affects second language acquisition indirectly by providing
a"pathway" for language acquisition. Cook (2000) confirms that
Medina's results are consistent with other statements made regarding the
efficacy of music, and also rhythm, in language acquisition. Tying Medina's
study to Schumann's physiological process, it might be safe to say that
her "pathway" consists of the amygdala and the release of endorphins.
This "pathway" bridges the gap between intrinsic motivation and
language acquisition.
Play
So far, I have examined literature with a focus on music, games, and TPR
on language acquisition. I want to shift focus away from these specifics
at this point and look into all activities under the umbrella of play.
In addition, I am making a generalization that the discussions on intrinsic
motivation and emotion above pertain to all forms of play. There is extensive
amount of literature on the topic of play (Vygotsky, 1933; Huizinga, 1955;
Bateson, 1972; Cook, 2000; Lantolf, 2001). As Huizinga (1955) notes, all
people play and all people have the ability to play. It is, however, difficult
to define what play is. Play varies among activities, social contexts,
and age groups. Play might involve a game, but not always. Play can involve
imagination, but it may also base itself on reality. Bateson (1972) makes
a concrete attempt to clear the water on the definition play. He explains
that when two individuals are playing, there is an intuitive sense that
the current activity being engaged in is "play." "Play"
looks something like, "the actions which are now being engaged in
do not denote what these actions, for which they stand, would traditionally
denote." For example, two children involved in playing "house"
are playing because the activities carried out in playing house (pretending
to cook dinner, etc.) do not stand for what "house" denotes in
an adult society.
Play has many forms under its umbrella, including fantasy, story telling,
music, movement, games, etc. Play almost always promotes excitement, enjoyment,
and a relaxing atmosphere. The first research, and probably some of the
most influential research on play was conducted by Vygotsky in the first
half of the 1900s. Vygotsky (1933) said that play creates a zone of proximal
development (ZDP) in children. According to Vygotsky, the ZDP is the distance
between one's actual developmental level and one's potential developmental
level when interacting with someone and/or something in the social environment
(Vygotsky, 1978). During play, children are always above their average
age, above their daily behavior, and ahead of their actual development
level. It is as if children are trying to jump ahead of themselves when
playing in order to explore their learning potential. Work by a number
of researchers compliment Vygotsky's theory of play and the ZPD (Sylva,
et al, 1974; Lantolf, 2001). As Lantolf (2001) explains, when children
pretend to be a mother, father, a doctor, a famous person, etc. (when Vygotsky
says they create a ZPD) they engage in activities that are not just about
enjoyment, but allow them to project into the future. Contributions of
play toward effective learning, thought organization, and problem solving
were also found by Sylva, et al (1974). Results from their study show that
children use information from mistakes during play to construct internal
models that assist them in solving future problems. If play does indeed
create a ZPD, it seems to promote development because children are able
to project themselves into the future and learn by developing future problem
solving strategies.
Play is also highly influential in language learning. In addition to songs,
games, and TPR activities, verbal play can be used. According to Cook (2000),
play in language learning is composed of two opposite spectrums: patterned
sound at one end and pragmatic contextualized meaning at the other. The
patterned end contains verse, speech, and semantic meaning. The pragmatic
end resembles the interaction which takes place between interlocutors (touch,
eye contact, affection, emotion, etc.) Butzkamm (1980) argues that verbal
play also provides children with the training phases necessary for developing
new verbal skills. Types of language play vary widely, from vocabulary
games to talking one's self. Language play incorporates word play, unregulated
rules, and enjoyment. Language play at the elementary school level might
include a task to create "crazy" sentences such as, The octopus
ate the giant purple banana.
Throughout this discussion, I have concentrated on play and affect in learning among children. However, play and affect are present among adults just as much as they are among children, with a few notable differences. Cook (2000) distinguishes play among adults and children in a discussion about fantasy. He notes that children are more likely to take part in make-believe and adults in fantasy. The difference being that both adults and children fantasize, yet children tend to act out their fantasies crossing the boundary into make-believe. Butzkamm (1980) confirms that play is also present among older learners during language play. In language play, older learners tend to use more mature language than children and pull ideas from the surrounding environment or personal relations. In a study carried out by Sullivan in a Vietnamese high school language classroom (2001), play is quite prevalent during communicative language learning activities. In the study, students are working on a playful narrative. Language is more complex than that used by younger foreign language students, yet laughing and excitement are still an integral part of the lesson.
Authenticity
While play and affect may fulfill their own set of goals in learning, at
some point it seems necessary for the learning such activities provide
to be applied to the 'real' world. Cook believes that reality and the artificial
world are complementary and that each reinforces our understanding of the
other. Yet Sullivan (2001) raises the questions, "Whose reality is
'real'?" "What context is 'authentic'?" Reality and authenticity
is discussed extensively by van Lier (1996). He agrees with Sullivan that
the definition of 'real' becomes a bit murky and suggests 'authenticity'
might be a better term. According to van Lier, authenticity does not necessarily
have to do with material from the 'real' world, but a learner's self determination
and commitment to understanding. Authenticity is a 'process of personal
engagement.' Thus playful activities involving imagination may not be considered
'real,' but are still authentic if learners are engaged in the activity.
Cook (2000) also notes that given the controversy with the term 'real,'
one might be better off using 'authentic.' Activities may not be 'real'
yet they can still be 'authentic' and quite useful.
There is still much work to be done in the area of play and affect in learning.
Until the 1990's the gap between affect (motivation and emotion) and language
acquisition still remained. As with Medina's (1993) study on the effectiveness
of music on vocabulary acquisition, literature acknowledged that intrinsic
motivation and emotion resulting from play created a pathway for language
acquisition, but the exact properties of that 'pathway' were never clearly
defined. Schumann's (1990) discussion of the amygdala opens the 'pathway'
and shows how research in intrinsic motivation (Deci and Ryan, 1985; Crookes
and Schmidt, 1991; Deci, 1995), emotion (Vygotsky; Damasio, 1994), and
play (Vygotsky, 1933; Huizinga, 1955; Bateson, 1972; Cook, 2000; Lantolf,
2001) compliment each other in the field of language learning. Schumann
contributes significantly to the idea that an activity-based approach to
language teaching involving play and affect has positive influence on language
acquisition among all age groups.
REFERENCES
Arnold, J. (1999). Affect in Language Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Bateson, G. (1972). Steps to an ecology of mind. London: Granada.
Butzkamm, W. (1980). Verbal play and pattern practice. In Felix, S. (Ed.) Second language development: Trends and issues, 233-48. Tubingen: Gunther Narr.
Coleman, J. (1967). Learning through games. In Bruner, J., Jolly, A. and
Sylva, K. (Eds.), (1976). Play: It's role in development and evolution
(pp. 461-463). New York: Penguin Books.
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Crookes, G. and Schmidt, R. (1991). Motivation: Reopening the research agenda, Language Learning, 41 (4), 469-512.
Damasio, A. (1994). Descartes' error: Emotion, reason, and the human brain.
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Written by:
Joel Bacha
MATESOL / International Policy Studies
Educational Development
Lecturer, Kanda University of International Studies, Japan
